About AIM > Research > Theory and Research Supporting AIM > Element 1
THEORY AND RESEARCH SUPPORTING
AIM AT MIDDLE-GRADES RESULTS
DESIGN ELEMENT ONE
RIGOROUS AND DEVELOPMENTALLY RESPONSIVE CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTION, AND
ASSESSMENT
Teaching for Understanding
Backward Design
Multiple Intelligences
Authentic and Developmentally Appropriate Pedagogy
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Teaching for Understanding
AIM curriculum, instruction, and assessment are designed by the school to
incorporate state and local guidelines and standards and are based on the
framework of Teaching for Understanding.
Teaching for Understanding draws from the field of cognitive science, particularly
the works of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Gardner. These cognitive psychologists
found that learning starts with what the learner already knows, requires
the construction of meaning, is a continuous and active process, and involves
reflection. Furthermore, learning can be scaffolded and it is socially mediated-that
is, learners develop understanding in dialogue and interaction with others.
Howard Gardner and David Perkins at Harvard Project Zero first coined the
term "Teaching for Understanding" and are most closely associated with the
concept. (See http://www.pz.harvard.edu/Research/TfU.htm
for a complete list of references on this topic.) Teaching for Understanding
allows teachers to focus on the concepts and "big ideas" that are most important
for students to understand. Without clarity about "understandings" in a
discipline, instruction is likely to be fragmented, disjointed, and superficial
as teachers try to "cover the content." Through Teaching for Understanding,
students acquire and use knowledge in ways that go beyond rote memorization
of facts and figures to develop a level of understanding that will serve
them well throughout their lives. If a student "understands" a topic, she
or he can use the information in different ways, not just repeat the information
on a test. "Performances of Understanding" provide opportunities for students
to use the information in new and meaningful ways in order to demonstrate
their understanding of the topic.
Elmore (1995) reinforces the importance of teaching for understanding. He
describes emerging views of learning that not only inform curriculum and
instruction but also have implications for school organization:
Backward Design
According to Wiggins and McTighe (1998), an "understanding" is a complex
and often confusing target for teachers and students. Through a process
called "backward design," teachers first identify the understandings, the
big ideas, and the important skills that students will learn and demonstrate,
and then plan meaningful assessment and instruction to lead students toward
the goal of understanding. Guiding questions aid the process:
Multiple
Intelligences
AIM also draws upon the theory and framework of Multiple Intelligences,
developed by Howard Gardner and Harvard's Project Zero. According to Project
Zero, "The 'Theory of Multiple Intelligences,' suggests that individuals
perceive the world in at least eight different and equally important ways-linguistic,
logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal." As of 2003, Gardner is considering
the inclusion of existential intelligence as a ninth category. The AIM
model provides opportunities for students to employ various intelligences
so they can achieve understanding of key ideas, concepts, and skills.
Authentic and Developmentally Appropriate Pedagogy
According to Newmann and Wehlage (1995), authentic pedagogy that helps
students meet high learning standards has three major components:
Construction of Knowledge
Students engage in higher-order thinking activities in which they manipulate
information and ideas by synthesizing, generalizing, explaining, hypothesizing
or arriving at conclusions that produce new meanings or understandings.
Disciplined Inquiry
Students make use of deep knowledge and engage in substantive conversations.
Deep knowledge involves addressing some central ideas of the discipline
the students are studying in order to explore connections and relationships
that end in complex understandings. In class, students also engage in
extended dialogues and exchanges with teachers and peers about the subject
matter in ways that develop shared understanding about ideas, issues,
or the discipline.
Value Beyond School
Students are engaged in subjects so that they make connections between
the substantive knowledge they are developing and either public problems
or personal experiences (p. 17).
In Schools for Thought, Bruer (1993) presents an extensive amount
of background research about concepts such as prior knowledge, problem
solving, and transfer of knowledge. Caine and Caine (1991) draw upon recent
brain research to support designing and orchestrating life-oriented, enriching,
and appropriate experiences for learners, and ensuring that students process
these experience to extract meaning. AIM encourages teachers to use authentic
and developmentally appropriate pedagogy in order to help all students
develop deep understanding.
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Link to bibliographical references.
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Return to Theory and Research index
page.
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Read about the theory and research supporting Design
Element 2.
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